Crisis en los medios y situación laboral de los periodistas

In this report, PEN America examines the steps taken by technology companies, government actors, and po- litical parties to curb the influence of fraudulent news in the 2018 U.S. midterm elections.

In recent years, Cubans have experienced mo- mentous change, from a gradual loosening of eco- nomic restrictions to greater access to cell phones, Wi-Fi, and social media. But the Cuban govern- ment continues to operate in a highly centralized and controlled way, including in the arts sector,

Informe sobre el estado de la libertad de prensa en Colombia 2018

La regulación de la vigilancia estatal constituye uno de los desafíos más significativos plan- teados por la irrupción de las tecnologías de comunicación: aunque esperamos que el apara- to estatal mantenga la seguridad, su capacidad de buscar esos fines infringiendo la privaci- dad crece sin una respuesta normativa.

Civil society leaders in Egypt are urging the U.S. government to continue to condition and withhold military aid to Egypt until the Egyptian government makes meaningful reforms to its human rights practices.

Journalists say they will be wary until Moreno fulfills his promises to scale back the Communications Law and scrap the regulator that enforced it.

Exposing and Challenging Government Hacking for Surveillance

In recent years, press freedom organizations have become increasingly concerned by the challenges faced by the media in the United States (US).

In view of the examination of Guatemala before the Human Rights Committee in March 2018, the Centre for Informative Reports on Guatemala (CERIGUA), with the support of IFEX and the International Network for Human Rights (RIDH), produced an alternative report on the aforementioned issues covering the time- period between 2012 and February 2018, the month in which this report was completed.

Along with eroding civil and political freedoms, President Nicolas Maduro’s declaration of a State of Exception and Economic Emergency, extended in May 2017, dictated “strict regulations” to prevent “destabilization campaigns” on the internet

Americans witnessed several major cyberattacks in the latter half of 2016, including the hacking and subsequent leaking of sensitive information from the Democratic National Committee in the lead up to the vote

A series of revelations renewed concerns about illegal surveillance practices in the country, as spying software sold to the government abusively targeted human rights lawyers, journalists, and activists

Politically motivated takedown requests for alleged copyright violations targeted online news outlets and the websites of human rights organizations

The government has continued to control the digital landscape by blocking critical sites. Tests also found that the state-owned cellphone provider Cubacel had been systematically filtering domestic SMS containing keywords such as “democracy,” “dictatorship,” and “human rights”

A court acquitted biologist Diego Gómez of violating copyright by sharing an academic paper online after three years of criminal proceedings; he faced up to 8 years in prison.

The Federal Court confirmed Canada’s privacy laws have extra-territorial application and ordered a foreign website to remove personal information of Canadians

At least three cyberattacks against digital media outlets were reported in early 2017. One of them was a Distributed Denial-of-Service attack against the news website Adelanto 24, which was taken offline in apparent retaliation for a publication on the army

The report examines the rise of fraudulent news, defined here as demonstrably false information that is being presented as a factual news report with the intention to deceive the public, and the related erosion of public faith in traditional journalism. The report identifies proposed solutions at the intersection of technology, journalism, and civil society to empower news consumers with better skills and tools to help them process the torrents of information they see online.

In September, the government eliminated the board of trustees of the public Brazilian Communications Company (EBC), which manages Brazil’s public radio and television stations as well as a news agency; the board was intended to ensure the body’s independence. Additional changes allow for the president to appoint and dismiss its top executive.

Independent outlets, which are technically illegal but tolerated if they do not cross certain red lines, continued to open and expand.

Venezuela’s economic crisis continued to affect the media industry, leaving dozens of publications in chronic danger of closure due to the difficulty of meeting basic operational costs. Many outlets also faced robberies, vandalism, and hackings.

The government of President Mauricio Macri reversed its predecessor’s pattern of hostility toward the private media, resuming regular press conferences and ending official criticism and harassment of specific journalists.

Daniel Ortega was reelected for a third consecutive term as president in November, at which point he had not held a formal press conference in more than nine years.

Cinemas across the country screened, at no charge, a government-backed film entitled The Cartel of Lies, which scrutinized press outlets and reporters who had reported critically on Morales. The film was also posted to the Ministry of the Presidency’s YouTube page.

Political polarization in the media worsened during the presidential campaign, due in part to the emergence of “alt-right” news sites that disseminated highly nationalistic or nativist messages, conspiracy theories, and at times false or propagandistic coverage.

Article 19, counted 11 murders of journalists in possible connection with their work for the year, and a total of 100 such killings since 2000.

Internet users from across the globe have come together to create a crowdsourced vision for free expression online. Over 300,000 people from 155 countries worldwide helped shape our roadmap for a Digital Future that includes us all.

Cuando hablamos de libertades en este in- forme no nos referimos solamente a valo- res abstractos que por lo general se nos ha dicho que debemos defender. Más bien, lo que narramos son historias de trabajo que se desenvuelven en el día a día y que están resistiendo a esas condiciones permanentes de marginación, opacidad y agresión.

Comparative Analysis of Surveillance Laws and Practices in Latin America

More Space for Criticism but Restrictions Slow Press Freedom Progress

Latin America is, by far, the most dangerous region of the world for environmental human rights defenders (EHRDs). The lack of effective guarantees of human rights protection in Latin American States has created this dire situation.

Segundo Informe de Monitoreo de Amenazas

Since its establishment under the 2013 Communications Law, Ecuador’s media regulator, known as SUPERCOM, has issued sanctions in more than 300 cases against media outlets.

Although the mastermind of a notorious journalist murder was convicted and sentenced, impunity remained the norm for Colombia’s dozens of journalist killings over the past two decades.

A controversial antiterrorism law came into force in June 2015; it includes provisions against “terrorist propaganda” and prohibits actions that “encourage” or “promote” terrorism.

In December 2015, the telecommunications regulatory authority announced that hundreds of broadcast outlets will see their licenses expire by 2019. To stay on the air, they will have to participate in a public licensing process expected to favor government-backed outlets.

In 2015, President Salvador Sánchez Cerén accused the media of promoting a “psychological terror” campaign against the government, following widespread reporting on increasing violence in the country.

In a scandal that broke in January, President Michel Martelly’s administration was criticized for handing out envelopes of cash to journalists at a 2014 Christmas reception.

Two journalists faced charges following their widely criticized arrest in Ferguson in 2014.

The administration of President Daniel Ortega set its sights on limiting internet freedom, although a proposed law that would have granted the government broad powers to control online content was defeated.

At least four reporters were killed in connection with their work in 2015, and the facilities of media organizations were repeatedly attacked with gunfire and explosives.

Macri used presidential decrees to replace the leadership of the two main media regulators and merge them into a new entity under the Ministry of Communications

The government refused to recognize a decision by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) ordering the reinstatement of the terrestrial broadcast license of television station Radio Caracas Television (RCTV), which was taken off the air in 2007 after a highly politicized campaign against the channel by then president Hugo Chávez.

The access to information law that took effect in September 2015 facilitated journalistic investigations into several corruption scandals, including widespread misuse of funds at the National University of Asunción.

In a case decried by media advocated as politically motivated, the newspaper La Prensa received a $600,000 fine for material damage and moral harm related to its reporting on mismanagement of government contracts.

A new law to protect journalists and human rights advocates took effect in June, drawing cautious optimism from freedom of expression advocates.

Following critical coverage of the government in the state-run Guyana Chronicle, Prime Minister Moses Nagamootoo in August ordered that headlines in state-run print outlets be screened by his office before publication.

A major corruption inquiry, aided by the work of local investigative journalists, led to the arrests and resignations of dozens of prominent officials during the year.

Although internet access remains severely limited, during the year the government continued a slow process of broadening access to online information sources by establishing a series of Wi-Fi hotspots.

Community radio stations, which face steep obstacles to registration, continue to be subject to service interruptions and confiscation of equipment.

Violence against journalists spiked in 2016, with no fewer than six reporters killed in retaliation for their work.

Comparative Study of Criminal Defamation Laws in the Americas

Ruling party proposes amendments to cyberterrorism law criminalizing use of social networks to “disrupt public peace”

“Federal Communications Commission approved new rules that allow it to regulate the internet as a public utility, including provisions to protect net neutrality”

Mexico continues to be “one of the most hostile environments in the world for journalists and bloggers”

Hacking, trolling, and threats targeting govement opponents follow President Correa’s Twitter campaign against online critics

Performance artist arrested and detained for online promotion of public performance in Plaza of the Revolution

Former public officials sentenced for illegally intercepting communications of judges, journalists and opposition leaders

Net neutrality rules limit telecoms’ ability to favor own streaming services over competitors

“Constitution for the internet” introduced

Supreme Court rules search engines not responsible for user generated content that violates rights or infinges copyright

How Opaque and Unaccountable Practices and Policies Threaten Canadians

Ranked 38th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 57th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 91st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 111st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 18th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 103rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 70th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 22nd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 75th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 139th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 140th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 64th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 118th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 84th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 97th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 127th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 31st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 48th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 18th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 11th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 27th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 152nd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 176th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 35th in annual global media freedom report

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Ranked 193rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 90th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 91st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 31st in annual global media freedom report

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Ranked 28th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 107th in annual global media freedom report

How Large-Scale US Surveillance is Harming Journalism, Law, and American Democracy

How Large-Scale US Surveillance is Harming Journalism, Law, and American Democracy

Which companies stand with their users, embracing transparency around government data requests? Which companies have resisted improper government demands by fighting for user privacy in the courts and on Capitol Hill? In short, which companies have your back?

This report documents 45 cases from Caracas and three states, involving more than 150 victims, in which security forces have abused the rights of protesters and other people in the vicinity of demonstrations.

Ranked 18th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 141st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 103rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 70th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 131st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 39th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 78th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 134th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 84th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 42nd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 190th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 22nd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 115th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 64th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 26th in annual global media freedom report

“Freedom of private discussion suffered during 2013 due to a series of releases of illegally recorded conversations of prominent Venezuelans”

Chelsea Manning sentenced to 35 years in prison for releasing classified documents to WikiLeaks.

Paraguay does not have a right to information law and continues to use defamation laws against the press”

Ranked 90th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 95th in annual global media freedom report

Duopoly controls over 90 percent of the broadcast market

Ranked 33rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 22nd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 27th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 106th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 78th in annual global media freedom report

Increased restrictions on media follow passing of new Communications Law

“Internet penetration rate is 5 percent, one of the lowest in the world”

Journalists no longer face imprisonment for releasing secret political information following revision of controversial 2012 law

“Armed groups maintain a presence on many campuses to generate political support and intimidate opponents”

Police often use excessive force against student protestors

Comprehensive freedom of information act not yet implemented a year after becoming law

Supreme Court upholds Media Law to diversify ownership in the heavily concentrated broadcast sector

Ranked 171st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 30th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 132nd in annual global media freedom report

Newspapers cut back page count as government stops supply of foreign currency to buy newsprint

President calls own government’s promoted media law a “monstrosity”

New York shield law protects journalists from requirement to disclose sources regardless of state jursidiction of crime

Anti-media agressiveness fails to intimadate journalists

Judicial harassment and threats of violence increase following reports on corruption and organized crime

Senate passes Freedom of Information bill

Civil lawsuits against media organizations constrain press freedom

Authorities fail to comply with own Access to Public Information law

Sixty percent of attacks on journalists carried out by public officials

Criminal libel abolished under ammended Defamation Act

High levels of impunity and “a climate of lack of safety” lead to journalist self-censorship

Nine suspects indicted for the 2000 murder of journalist, Jean Leopold Dominique

Two police officers charged with abuse of authority following tear-gassing of 28 journalists

Controversial electonic defamation law passes desipte immense opposition

Election propaganda negatively affects news media and press freedom

Private media firm Secom takes over Freedom of Expression NGOs under Executive Decree 16

Television commentators deemed “trailors of the fatherland” for supporting undocumented workers

Brutal physical assaults of dissidents increase

Detention of judicial employee has chilling effect on other press informants

“90 reporters are facing extraordinary risks according to the State Protection Unit”

Uncertainty surrounds new media bill

Internet surveillance legislation dropped following widespead opposition

“Freedom of expression has drastically deteriorated”

“Media weakness has become the objective of those in government”

Powerful business leaders increasingly using advertising money to influence editorial decisions

“A fertile year for attacks on journalists and other restrictions of freedom of expression”

“NSA symbolises intelligence services’ abuses”

“Long Live Freedom (but not for the Internet)!”

“Sale of Globovisión leaves country without a critical broadcaster”

“Aggressive leak prosecutions, secret subpoenas, and surveillance have chilling effect”

“Journalists covering corruption, protests are targeted”

“Amid climate of impunity, authorities botch investigations into key cases”

“Journalists targeted amid a general climate of rampant violence”

“Critical daily elPeriódico harassed and attacked”

“New communications law gives authorities power to censor, sanction press”

“Dissidents allowed to travel abroad for first time in decades”

“Impunity prevails for past journalist murders as cases go cold”

“Deadly violence” against journalists continues

“Conflict between government and critical media companies intensifies”

Ranked 116th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 26th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 46th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 43rd in annual press freedom index

Ranked 31st in annual press freedom index

Ranked 104th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 105th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 87th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 71st in annual press freedom index

Ranked 55th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 36th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 152nd in annual press freedom index

Ranked 17th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 129th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 47th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 67th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 125th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 38th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 95th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 68th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 170th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 21st in annual press freedom index

Ranked 126th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 58th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 18th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 111th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 94th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 29th in annual press freedom index

“Government has taken aggressive steps to reduce the availability of media outlets that engage in critical programming”

Snowden leaks reveal secret domestic surveillance program aimed at US citizens

Journalists, peasant activists and LGBTI individuals vulnerable to attacks; government fails to protect

“Human rights defenders face threats of violence”

UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression raise concerns over agression against journalists

Arbitrary prosecutions and censorship permitted under 2013 Communications Law

Government criminalizes denial of terrorist attacks

Government announces expanded internet access, undermines plan with restrictive caveats

“Rights advocates and journalists continue to be targeted for threats and attacks”

Pinochet-era decree used to stiffle student protests

Government lables anti-pipeline activists ‘radicals’; agents of foreign funded interests

Attacks from government officials and criminal groups lead to journalistic self-censorship

Police officers charged with aggravated homicide in deaths of six journalists

Despite robust public debate, President Morales aggressively criticizes press

President accuses media of using ‘bullets of ink’

Ranked 168th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 47th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 23rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 47th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 40th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 19th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 12th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 29th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 89th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 134th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 94th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 106th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 134th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 23rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 140th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 96th in annual global media freedom report

Which companies help protect your data from the government?

Ranked 68th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 128th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 39th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 83rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 134th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 81st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 40th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 191st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 23rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 112th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 64th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 29th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 91st in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 94th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 35th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 23rd in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 27th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 109th in annual global media freedom report

Ranked 79th in annual global media freedom report

The report examines all of the shortcomings of this South American giant’s media landscape It is based on fact-finding visits to Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Brasilia in November 2012.

“The security environment for journalists has deteriorated markedly”

“While newspapers are independent and free of government control, circulation is generally low”

“The second most dangerous country in the world for journalists”

“Threats against and illegal arrests of civil society leaders increased during the year”

Police kill three protesters during a protest against high electricity prices

“Scholars have received death threats for questioning past human rights abuses or continuing injustices”

Grenada becomes first Caribbean country to decriminalise defamation

“The government and private organisations have worked to extend Internet access to the poor”

“The country lacks access to information legislation, and defamation remains a criminal offense punishable by imprisonment or fines”

“There are an estimated 70 independent, journalistic bloggers working on the island”

Government uses advertising to influence media content

“Twitter and other social media platforms have become important arenas of political discourse”

“In 2012, many members of the press were detained and harassed by the police while covering student protests”

“Media ownership continued to become more concentrated in 2012”

Twitter accounts of journalists and opposition activists hacked to disseminate pro-government messages

“Congressional efforts in 2012 to adopt legislation to prevent copyright infringement on the Internet were shelved in response to strong opposition from leading Internet companies, websites, and ordinary users”

Long-awaited freedom of information bill goes into effect

Criticising government officials decriminalised in October

“Concerns over government control of the broadcast industry remain after the attempted nationalisation of Telemedia”

“Press outlets are privately owned and vigorously pluralistic”

Rastafarian community faces discrimination in education and employment

Prime Minister voices support for Freedom of Information legislation

“Puerto Rico’s tradition of varied and vigorous news media has been challenged by a decline in newspapers stemming from the economic crisis”

“Public access to government information is legally recognised, though it is very limited in practice”

“The Bahamas has a well-developed tradition of respecting press freedom”

“Government officials use libel lawsuits against members of the media”

“Low pay leaves reporters susceptible to bribery”

“The constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which is respected in practice”

“The administration carried out smear campaigns against critical journalists” in 2012

“In 2012, journalists investigating corruption and organized crime or who were vocally critical of the government suffered threats and violent attacks by drug cartels, government officials, and the EPP”

“Politicians often file libel suits against opposing party members”

Journalists subject of government attack ads

“The Ortega administration engages in systematic efforts to obstruct and discredit media critics”

Newsprint regulation, Law 26,736, will bring a “dark precedents for press freedom”

President regards media as his main opponents, claims they wish to destabilise administration

“Sluggish” Brazilian judicial system leads to impunity for murdered journalists and delays in censorship appeals

Government under fire for delaying timely access to federally-funded scientific research

Fears rise that new hate speech legislation could hinder freedom of expression

New legislation curtails media’s ability to cover elections

President Chinchilla delays passage of Freedom of Expression and Press Freedom bill

Blogger Yoani Sánchez named one of “150 women who rocked the world” in 2012 by Newsweek magazine

National Council for State Reform and Education Ministry begin nationwide educational campaign to promote access to information

Three laws passed that restrict press freedom

Penal code amended to remove prison terms for defamation and libel

Columnist and radio announcer Lucía Escobar forced into exile after reporting on Security Commission abuses against civilians

“The head of state never misses an opportunity to attack the media”

“Impunity surrounding crimes against journalists”

Defamation and libel decriminalised

“Government party maintains iron-fisted control over information and advertising through numerous government-owned media outlets”

President accuses media of blackmailing government ministers

“Since the administration of President Fernando Lugo there has been an increase in attacks on the press”

Journalists attacked for revealing that “police had been extorting smugglers and drug traffickers who operate in the border area between Peru and Bolivia”

President of Puerto Rican Senate to journalists, “I’m watching you”

Amnesty law for crimes against humanity leads to indefinite impunity for five murdered reporters

Police use search-and-seizure order to confiscate computer equipment from Newsday following a request to disclose source of controversial report on Integrity Commissioner

“Sporadic explosions of bad temper” by President Mujica cause interference in journalists’ work

Soldier Bradley Manning faces charges under Espionage Act that could lead to death penalty for allegedly supplying info to Wikileaks

Social Responsibility law used to force closure of 32 radio and two television stations

Pro-regime bloggers wage non-stop on-line battle against bloggers critical of government

Federal Court sentences 16 military members in decades-old murder of journalist Rodolfo Walsh

“In the first half of 2011, Brazilian authorities issued 224 takedown orders to Google, more than any other country in the world”

29 independent journalists imprisoned in 2003 Black Spring crackdown released

Five former national intelligence officials convicted of espionage against journalists and opposition politicians

Five media facilities occupied by military in 2011

New protection program for journalists “ineffectual at best”

State Department falls short in its implementation of Daniel Pearl Freedom of the Press Act

Hacker group N33 attacks twitter accounts of journalists critical of Chavez administration

Ranked 117th on annual press freedom index for lack of media pluralism, judicial harassment and physical attacks against journalists

US drops 27 places to 47th in annual press freedom review following numerous attacks on journalists covering Occupy Protests

State espionage of journalists leads to country’s 20 point fall in annual review of press freedom

“Radio broadcasting is still a state monopoly”

Rising political tensions have no negative consequences for press freedom

Little change in press freedom situation as nation ties for 47th place on annual index

“Peru, notorious for the frequency of attacks on the press”

Two Spanish journalists expelled for reporting on indigenous resistance movement

Honduras “languished at the bottom” of annual press freedom index

Media suffer from impact of violent crime, habitual self-censorship and lack of pluralism

Decreased incidents of assault lead to 14 place rise to 37th position on annual press freedom index

Ranked 95th in annual press freedom index

Ranked 32nd in annual press freedom index

Highest ranking Latin American nation on annual free expression index

Ranked 143rd in annual press freedom index

Surinam rises 13 positions to 22nd place on annual press freedom index

Student protestors raise concern over media concentration

Lack of violent attacks leads Jamaica to 16th place on annual press freedom index

Canada recovers hemisphere’s best rating in 2011 press freedom index

Brazil falls 41 positions to 99th place in annual press freedom index

Nation falls 26 places to 80th position in annual press freedom index as journalists face increased violence

Political polarisation has little effect on work of journalists

Issues of balance and pluralism, judicial harassment plague nation

Lowest-ranking nation in Americas in annual press freedom index

“Netizens who take a stand against the prevailing violence are now also becoming the targets for killings and reprisals”

Little changes in Bolivian press freedom environment

Government introduces legislation to decriminalise defamation

“A climate of impunity and self-censorship”

Three journalists killed in 2011 “at the hands of unidentified attackers”

President accuses free expression NGO Fundamedios of “trying to destabilise his government”

“The government maintains a media monopoly on the island, ensuring there is virtually no freedom of expression”

Radio journalist shot for reporting on corruption by local government officials, fifth journalist killed in 2011

Fears rise that anti-racism law could have a chilling effect on the press

Supreme Courts curtails government practise of rewarding supportive media with state advertising contracts

Expansion of desacato laws, which criminalise “disrespect of public officials,” lead to a climate of self-censorship