Repression has permeated every sector of society, targeting journalists, civil society actors, women, and even ordinary citizens who express dissenting views.
This statement was originally published on cihrs.org on 17 February 2025.
As Libya marks the anniversary of the 2011 revolution that toppled Muammar Gaddafi, the country faces an escalating human rights crisis. Initial aspirations for democracy and justice have been eclipsed by systemic repression, political fragmentation, and widespread abuses by armed groups operating with impunity. Fourteen years after the fall of a ruthless dictator who ruled for more than three decades, Libyans remain subjugated under many of the same repressive laws used in the Gaddafi era to silence dissent and imprison opponents.
In Libya’s fractured landscape, governing authorities are mainly divided between the western Tripoli-based Government of National Unity (GNU) and the eastern political and military institutions under Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar oversight. Both have cemented their authoritarian rule, using an increasingly extreme religious discourse to enforce control on every aspect of citizens’ lives and suppress opposition. Repression has permeated every sector of society, targeting journalists, civil society actors, women, and even ordinary citizens who express dissenting views or fail to conform to imposed social or religious norms.
“Fourteen years after the revolution, instead of reining in the militias that terrorize Libyans, western and eastern authorities instrumentalize regressive religious discourse to tighten their grip on ordinary citizens, seeking to control every aspect of their public and private lives – dictating what they wear, what they listen to, and how they behave. Urgent action is needed to break this cycle of repression and violence. Without concrete steps toward rule of law and genuine political reform, Libya risks further entrenching authoritarianism and abandoning the vision of a democratic, rights-respecting state,” said Ziad Abdeltawab, Deputy Director of the Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies.
Western and eastern authorities have intermittently waged war against each other since 2014, and continue to vie for power; their protracted division has plunged the country into paralysis. The prolonged political deadlock has allowed armed groups to expand their influence, commit human rights abuses with impunity, and solidify their control over state institutions. As shown in a recent UN Security Council report, armed groups have entrenched themselves within Libya’s political and economic institutions, exerting unprecedented influence over governance structures. In the west, these groups manipulate government bodies to serve their interests, while in the east, the Libyan Arab Armed Forces (LAAF) maintain absolute control over governance and economic resources. These groups have expanded their wealth through fuel smuggling, illicit taxation, and revenue extortion from state-owned enterprises.
The Instrumentalization of Religious Discourse to Consolidate Repression
Over the past two years, western and eastern authorities have increasingly used morality-based arguments to consolidate authoritarian control, particularly targeting women and civil society. For example, on 6 November 2024, the Tripoli-based Libya’s Minister of the Interior, who belongs to the UN-recognized Government of National Union, announced plans to establish a ‘Morality Police’ and enforce mandatory veiling on women. Meanwhile, the Eastern Interior Ministry imposed a prior security and cultural clearance for any artistic work, specifically targeting rap songs as they “contain obscene language, encourage the exploitation of minors, and directly incite crimes and rebellion against the family.”
Morality-based rhetoric has also been weaponized against civil society, in repeated efforts to discredit activists and further justify their repression. For example, in a recent press conference, Lotfi al-Harari, head of the Internal Security Agency (ISA) in western Libya, accused civil society organizations of espionage, proselytism, and incitement to homosexuality.
Authorities in the west and the east have continued to use Gaddafi-era laws to stifle opposition while also adding their own repressive legal arsenal to the already restrictive legal framework. Law No. 19 of 2001 grants the State excessive control over civil society organizations, including their formation and funding, while Article 206 of the Penal Code criminalizes opposition groups and exposes them to severe penalties, including the death sentence. Law No. 65 of 2012 restricts peaceful protest by imposing strict prior authorization requirements. Law No. 3 of 2014 on Counterterrorism broadly defines terrorism to allow the prosecution of activists and journalists. The 2022 Cybercrime Law expands government surveillance while criminalizing online dissent. These legal tools collectively suppress dissent and restrict civic space under the pretext of security and moral protection. Despite these challenges, activists and youth groups strive to sustain their political engagement, though at great risk.
A Judiciary Paralyzed by Political and Armed Group Influence
The judiciary remains weak and susceptible to pressure from both political actors and armed groups. For example, in May 2023, the Internal Security Agency (ISA) in Tripoli arbitrarily detained several activists from the Tanweer group, an organization campaigning for women and LGBTQ+ rights in Libya. They were prosecuted under vague accusations of being atheists and propagating debauchery after the ISA released videos of their confessions, which are likely forced.
Armed groups operate with near-total impunity, as exemplified by the assassination in broad daylight of prominent lawyer Hanan al- Barassi in Benghazi; the November 2020 crime remains unpunished to date. Forces aligned with both governments have been implicated in extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and other abuses, such as the 2017 mass execution of prisoners by Mahmoud al-Werfalli, a senior LNA commander under ICC arrest warrant who was later assassinated rather than brought to justice.
While Libya’s judicial system remains paralyzed, other states have actively obstructed international accountability efforts. A striking example is that of Osama Elmasry Njeem, a Libyan police chief sought by the International Criminal Court (ICC) for alleged war crimes and crimes against humanity. Arrested in Italy in January 2025, Njeem was quickly released from detention, apparently due to procedural errors, and repatriated to Libya without facing justice, highlighting the Italian authorities’ lack of will to implement ICC warrants. The Italian PM and two ministers are under investigation for the Libyan warlord’s release. It showcases how human rights enforcement in Libya is further undermined by Western governments that do not abide by international law and treaties they are bound by.
Abuses Against Migrants and Refugees
Migrants and asylum seekers in Libya are subjected to inhumane conditions, including torture, trafficking, slavery, forced labor, and sexual violence, in arbitrary and indefinite detention controlled by state-affiliated forces, militias, and smugglers. The UN has reported that many of these facilities operate outside of legal oversight, enabling systemic abuse and exploitation.
The final report of the former UN Fact-Finding Mission (UNFFM) on Libya highlighted credible risks of complicity from European policy-makers with these crimes, which have still not been addressed by the EU or EU member states.
On this anniversary, we call on:
- The international community to ensure that free and fair general elections take place under full UN supervision, following the success of the 2024 municipal elections.
- The Libyan authorities to repeal repressive laws, including Law No. 19 of 2001 on Associations and Article 206 of the Penal Code, and adopt legislative reforms to the legal framework that will respect freedom of association, speech and assembly.
- Authorities in the East and the West to dismantle militia forces and implement comprehensive security sector reform. This requires disbanding armed groups, integrating vetted personnel into a professional security apparatus, and establishing civilian oversight to ensure accountability.
- The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) to launch a new UN Fact-Finding Mission on Libya, considering the end of the previous one based on the UNHRC Resolution 43/39 (2020), to ensure independent investigations into human rights violations.
- The EU and its Member States to implement the UNFFM’s recommendations regarding robust and thorough human rights due diligence for any support to Libyan actors involved in the security sector, border management or migration; and to prioritize respect of the principle of non-refoulement.
- The UNSC to take decisive action in enforcing the arms embargo based on the UNSCR 1970 (2011), imposing sanctions on armed groups responsible for systematic human rights abuses.
- The members of ICC to take all necessary measures to ensure the enforcement of existing arrest warrants against individuals accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity.
